Indifference curves

A graph of indifference curves for an individual consumer associated with different utility levels is called an indifference map. Points yielding different utility levels are each associated with distinct indifference curves. An indifference curve describes a set of personal preferences and so can vary from person to person. An indifference curve is like a contour line on a topographical map. Each point on the map represents the same elevation. If you move "off" an indifference curve traveling in a northeast direction you are essentially climbing a mound of utility. The higher you go the greater the level of utility. The non-satiation requirement means that you will never reach the "top".

Indifference curves are typically represented to be:
• 1. defined only in the positive (+, +) quadrant of commodity-bundle quantities.
• 2. negatively sloped. That is, as quantity consumed of one good (X) increases, total satisfaction would increase if not offset by a decrease in the quantity consumed of the other good (Y). Equivalently, satiation, such that more of either good (or both) is equally preferred to no increase, is excluded. (If utility U = f(x, y), U, in the third dimension, does not have a local maximum for any x and y values.) The negative slope of the indifference curve reflects the law of diminishing marginal utility. That is as more of a good is consumed total utility increases at a decreasing rate - additions to utility per unit consumption are successively smaller. Thus as you move dowm the indifference curve you are trading consumption of units of Y for additional units of X. The price of a unit of X in terms of Y increases.
• 3. complete, such that all points on an indifference curve are ranked equally preferred and ranked either more or less preferred than every other point not on the curve. So, with (2), no two curves can intersect (otherwise non-satiation would be violated).
• 4. transitive with respect to points on distinct indifference curves. That is, if each point on I2 is (strictly) preferred to each point on I1, and each point on I3 is preferred to each point on I2, each point on I3 is preferred to each point on I1. A negative slope and transitivity exclude indifference curves crossing, since straight lines from the origin on both sides of where they crossed would give opposite and intransitive preference rankings.
• 5. (strictly) convex (sagging from below). With (2), convex preferences implies a bulge toward the origin of the indifference curve. As a consumer decreases consumption of one good in successive units, successively larger doses of the other good are required to keep satisfaction unchanged.

What is Acquisition?

Acquisition is the technology that allows dynamic behavior and content to be passed between Zope objects.

Acquisition's flavor permeates Zope, and a basic understanding of acquisition is important for understanding Zope's power and how to harness it.

Acquisition is about Containment

The concept behind acquisition is simple:

1. Objects are placed inside other objects.
2. Objects acquire content and behavior from their containers.

That's it.

What's so powerful about Containment?

The powerful part about acquisition is how objects automatically gather services from their containers. What this means is that when you create Documents and Folders you're not just building a web site, you're building an information structure.

For example, when you place a Document inside a Folder you are creating a small information sharing facility between the Document and the Folder.

Why is this different from placing an HTML file inside a directory? Because in Zope, the Document has access to all its container's content and services. So if a Folder can send mail, any Document placed inside the Folder can also send mail.

Providing services

Not only do objects acquire services, they also provide them. For example, adding a Mail Host object to a Folder provides that Folder with the ability to send mail. Documents too can provide services to Folders. In fact every object provides some service.

So acquisition goes both ways, when you create an object in Zope it automatically acquires services, and it also automatically provides services that other objects can acquire. This makes reuse of services very easy since you don't have to do anything special to make services available to other objects.

What is a Merger?

A merger occurs when two companies combine to form a single company. A merger is very similar to an acquisition or takeover, except that in the case of a merger existing stockholders of both companies involved retain a shared interest in the new corporation. By contrast, in an acquisition one company purchases a bulk of a second company's stock, creating an uneven balance of ownership in the new combined company.
The entire merger process is usually kept secret from the general public, and often from the majority of the employees at the involved companies. Since the majority of merger attempts do not succeed, and most are kept secret, it is difficult to estimate how many potential mergers occur in a given year. It is likely that the number is very high, however, given the amount of successful mergers and the desirability of mergers for many companies.
A merger may be sought for a number of reasons, some of which are beneficial to the shareholders, some of which are not. One use of the merger, for example, is to combine a very profitable company with a losing company in order to use the losses as a tax write-off to offset the profits, while expanding the corporation as a whole.
Increasing one's market share is another major use of the merger, particularly amongst large corporations. By merging with major competitors, a company can come to dominate the market they compete in, giving them a freer hand with regard to pricing and buyer incentives. This form of merger may cause problems when two dominating companies merge, as it may trigger litigation regarding monopoly laws.
Another type of popular merger brings together two companies that make different, but complementary, products. This may also involve purchasing a company which controls an asset your company utilizes somewhere in its supply chain. Major manufacturers buying out a warehousing chain in order to save on warehousing costs, as well as making a profit directly from the purchased business, is a good example of this. PayPal's merger with eBay is another good example, as it allowed eBay to avoid fees they had been paying, while tying two complementary products together.
A merger is usually handled by an investment banker, who aids in transferring ownership of the company through the strategic issuance and sale of stock. Some have alleged that this relationship causes some problems, as it provides an incentive for investment banks to push existing clients towards a merger even in cases where it may not be beneficial for the stockholders.

What is deflation and how can it be prevented?

There is currently talk in the media about the possibility of deflation. I think I understand what deflation is, and the problems that deflation would entail. However, I also seem to recall that when the government prints money it causes inflation. It seems to me, given these two "facts", the government would only have to print money to avoid deflation. (Pretty simple minded approach!)

Is the problem that there is more to printing money than printing money? Is in fact the way printed money gets into circulation, that the fed buys bonds, and thus gets money into the economy? What is the logical rabbit trail that leads to inflation from printing money? Would solving deflation this way work with today's low interest rates? Why or why not?

A: Deflation has been a hot topic since about 2001 and the fear of deflation does not look like it will subside anytime soon. Thanks for the topic suggestion!

What is deflation?

The Glossary of Economics Terms defines deflation as occurring "when prices are declining over time. This is the opposite of inflation; when the inflation rate (by some measure) is negative, the economy is in a deflationary period."

The article Why Does Money Have Value? explains that inflation occurs when money becomes relatively less valuable than goods. Then deflation is simply the opposite, that over time money is becoming relatively more valuable than the other goods in the economy. Following the logic of that article, deflation can occur because of a combination of four factors:

1. The supply of money goes down.
2. The supply of other goods goes up.
3. Demand for money goes up.
4. Demand for other goods goes down.

Deflation generally occurs when the supply of goods rises faster than the supply of money, which is consistent with these four factors. These factors explain why the price of some goods increase over time while others decline. Personal computers have sharply dropped in price over the last fifteen years. This is because technological improvements have allowed the supply of computers to increase at a much faster rate than demand or the supply of money. During the 1980's there was a sharp increase in the price of 1950's baseball cards, due to a huge increase in demand and a basically fixed amount of supply of both cards and money. So your suggestion to increase the money supply if we're worried about deflation is a good one, as it follows the four factors above.

Pakistan Economy

Pakistan Economy registers a six to seven percent economic growth with its foreign direct investment escalating day by day. Pakistan , from the time of its independence started with a purely agricultural economy. But soon its industrial wing gathered momentum and soon Pakistan became the role model world over.
It is one among the growing economies of the World. The economic potentiality of the country is better judged only when we mark the positive growth rate of the economy since 1951.
The country has a total surface area of 796.1 thousand sq mi.
Pakistan Economy Social Indicators
In mid Year 2005, the population of the country was 155.8 millions in comparison to the 152.1 millions in the previous year. The average annual growth rate of the population (%) in the country (1999-05) was 2.4.
The following table represents the annual growth rate of population in the country.
The life Expectancy rate of the country in the year 2003 was 64.1 Years.

Economics as a Social Science

Economic ideas are influential in restructuring society, for better or worse. An understanding of economics is important in the pursuit of progressive social change, even more than in the pursuit of personal enrichment.

Economics as a Social Science challenges the conventional wisdom of neoclassical economic theory found in most standard textbooks. It examines alternative analytical frameworks and draws on the insights provided by contemporary feminist and environmental movements. Since the release of the first edition in 1996, this
book has become a key text. This new edition provides up-to-date analysis of economic issues, grounded in the current social and political context.

Major sections explore:
· Contemporary challenges: globalisation, inequality, economy-environment interactions and the 'new economy'
· Economy and society: market, state, class, gender, ethnicity, social capital, ideology
· Competing economic analyses: classical, neoclassical, Marxian, institutional, Keynesian and post Keynesian
· Modern challenges: green economics, feminist economics, rethinking economic development
· The state and economic policies: what can governments do?

Economics as a Social Science is a comprehensive collection of classical and contemporary readings in the field, written by leading local and international scholars.

Some chapters have been written for the book by prominent economists. Others are condensed versions of longer chapters and articles, abridged in order to highlight the key issues. All have been selected with a view to making the issues accessible to non-specialists who might otherwise shy away from the study of technical economic issues.


Frank Stilwell is Professor of Political Economy in the School of Economics and Political Science at the University of Sydney. He is author of Changing Track: A New Political Economic Direction for Australia (2000) and contributor to other Pluto Press books such as Serving the City (1999) and Stopping the Juggernaut (1999).

What Caused The Economic Crisis Of 2008?

I think we can sum up the cause of our current economic crisis in one word — GREED. Over the years, mortgage lenders were happy to lend money to people who couldn’t afford their mortgages. But they did it anyway because there was nothing to lose. These lenders were able to charge higher interest rates and make more money on sub-prime loans. If the borrowers default, they simply seized the house and put it back on the market. On top of that, they were able to pass the risk off to mortgage insurer or package these mortgages as mortgage-backed securities. Easy money!
What Went Wrong With Our Financial System?
The whole thing was one big scheme. Everything was great when houses were selling like hot cakes and their values go up every month. Lenders made it easier to borrow money, and the higher demand drove up house values. Higher house values means that lenders could lend out even bigger mortgages, and it also gave lenders some protection against foreclosures. All of this translates into more money for the lenders, insurers, and investors.
Unfortunately, many borrowers got slammed when their adjustable mortgage finally adjusted. When too many of them couldn’t afford to make their payments, it causes these lenders to suffer from liquidity issue and to sit on more foreclosures than they could sell. Mortgage-backed securities became more risky and worth less causing investment firms like Lehman Brothers to suffer. Moreover, insurers like AIG who insured these bad mortgages also got in trouble.

Pakistan - Balance of payments

Pakistan's payments problems have been chronic since the 1970s, with the cost of oil imports primarily responsible for the trade imbalance. The growth of exports and of remittances from Pakistanis working abroad (mostly in the Middle East) helped Pakistan to keep the payments deficit in check. Since the oil sector boom began subsiding in the early 1980s, however, remittances declined. Remittances from overseas workers peaked at $2.9 billion in 1982/83, then dropped to $1.4 billion by 1997/98 and $1 billion from 1999 to 2001. This trend especially accelerated during the Gulf War, when nearly 80,000 Pakistanis in Kuwait and Iraq lost their jobs. Only about 25% of these jobs had been regained a year after the end of the conflict. Increased imports and softer demand for Pakistan's textiles and apparel in major markets also caused the current account deficit to further increase. The balance of payments position weakened in 1995/96 as imports grew by 16% and exports by only 6%. The rupee was devalued by 11% during 1995 and 1996 to encourage exports. Nevertheless, foreign reserves fell to around $800 million by mid-1997. By 2000, foreign debt equaled 100% of GDP. The government took steps in the early 2000s to liberalize and deregulate the exchange and payments regime. Pakistan moved to a dual exchange rate system in 2000. An increase in liquid foreign exchange reserves in 2001 was due in part to outright purchases from the kerb market and inflows from international financial institutions. Export growth in 2000/01 was primarily due to higher exports of primary commodities such as rice, raw cotton, and fish, and other manufactures such as leather, carpets, sporting goods, and surgical instruments. Imports increased in 2000/01 primarily due to higher imports of petroleum and petroleum products, and machinery.

International trade

International trade is exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders or territories.[1] In most countries, it represents a significant share of gross domestic product (GDP). While international trade has been present throughout much of history (see Silk Road, Amber Road), its economic, social, and political importance has been on the rise in recent centuries. Industrialization, advanced transportation, globalization, multinational corporations, and outsourcing are all having a major impact on the international trade system. Increasing international trade is crucial to the continuance of globalization. International trade is a major source of economic revenue for any nation that is considered a world power. Without international trade, nations would be limited to the goods and services produced within their own borders.
International trade is in principle not different from domestic trade as the motivation and the behavior of parties involved in a trade does not change fundamentally depending on whether trade is across a border or not. The main difference is that international trade is typically more costly than domestic trade. The reason is that a border typically imposes additional costs such as tariffs, time costs due to border delays and costs associated with country differences such as language, the legal system or a different culture.


International trade uses a variety of currencies, the most important of which are held as foreign reserves by governments and central banks. Here the percentage of global cummulative reserves held for each currency between 1995 and 2005 are shown: the US dollar is the most sought-after currency, with the Euro in strong demand as well.
Another difference between domestic and international trade is that factors of production such as capital and labor are typically more mobile within a country than across countries. Thus international trade is mostly restricted to trade in goods and services, and only to a lesser extent to trade in capital, labor or other factors of production. Then trade in good and services can serve as a substitute for trade in factors of production. Instead of importing the factor of production a country can import goods that make intensive use of the factor of production and are thus embodying the respective factor. An example is the import of labor-intensive goods by the United States from China. Instead of importing Chinese labor the United States is importing goods from China that were produced with Chinese labor. International trade is also a branch of economics, which, together with international finance, forms the larger branch of international economics.

Modern Economics

Social science devoted to studying the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth. It consists of the disciplines of microeconomics (the study of individual producers, consumers, or markets), and macroeconomics, (the study of whole economies or systems – in particular, areas such as taxation and public spending).
Economics is the study of how, in a given society, choices are made in the allocation of resources to produce goods and services for consumption, and the mechanisms and principles that govern this process. Economics seeks to apply scientific method to construct theories about the processes involved and to test them against what actually happens. Its two central concerns are the efficient allocation of available resources and the problem of reconciling finite resources with a virtually infinite desire for goods and services. Economics analyses the ingredients of economic efficiency in the production process, and the implications for practical policies, and examines conflicting demands for resources and the consequences of whatever choices are made, whether by individuals, enterprises, or governments.
Microeconomics and macroeconomics frequently overlap. They include the subdiscipline of econometrics, which analyses economic relationships using mathematical and statistical techniques. Increasingly sophisticated econometric methods are today being used for such topics as economic forecasting. Pioneers in this field include Ragnar Frisch and Leonid Kantorovich.
Economics aims to be either positive, presenting objective and scientific explanations of how an economy works, or normative, offering prescriptions and recommendations on what should be done to cure perceived ills. However, almost inevitably, value judgements are involved in all economists' formulations.
Economics came of age as a separate area of study with the publication of Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations 1776; the economist Alfred Marshall (1842–1924) established the orthodox position of neoclassical economics, which, as modified by John Maynard Keynes, remains the standard today. Major economic thinkers include David Ricardo, Thomas Malthus, J S Mill, Karl Marx, Vilfredo Pareto, and Milton Friedman.

What Is Economics?

Resources include the time and talent people have available, the land, buildings, equipment, and other tools on hand, and the knowledge of how to combine them to create useful products and services.
Important choices involve how much time to devote to work, to school, and to leisure, how many dollars to spend and how many to save, how to combine resources to produce goods and services, and how to vote and shape the level of taxes and the role of government.
Often, people appear to use their resources to improve their well-being. Well-being includes the satisfaction people gain from the products and services they choose to consume, from their time spent in leisure and with family and community as well as in jobs, and the security and services provided by effective governments. Sometimes, however, people appear to use their resources in ways that don't improve their well-being.
In short, economics includes the study of labor, land, and investments, of money, income, and production, and of taxes and government expenditures. Economists seek to measure well-being, to learn how well-being may increase overtime, and to evaluate the well-being of the rich and the poor. The most famous book in economics is the Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of The Wealth of Nations written by Adam Smith, and published in 1776 in Scotland.
Although the behavior of individuals is important, economics also addresses the collective behavior of businesses and industries, governments and countries, and the globe as a whole. Microeconomics starts by thinking about how individuals make decisions. Macroeconomics considers aggregate outcomes. The two points of view are essential in understanding most economic phenomena.
The list of fields in economics illustrates the scope of economic thought.
Definitions of Economics from Historic Textbooks
"Economics is the study of people in the ordinary business of life."
-- Alfred Marshall, Principles of economics; an introductory volume (London: Macmillan, 1890)
"Economics is the science which studies human behavior as a relationship between given ends and scarce means which have alternative uses."
-- Lionel Robbins, An Essay on the Nature and Significance of Economic Science (London: MacMillan, 1932)

Causes of Unemployment

The individual and societal causes of unemployment in the perspectives of Max Weber, Karl Marx and Social inter-actionist theories. The relevance of these theories to explain the causes of unemployment in the global economy in the mid-century.In this essay I will discuss how unemployment is an individual and a social problem and how Max Weber distinguished power, authority and coercion and how the functionalist, conflict theorist and symbolic interaction theory view the economy and by the mid century how they have evolved and the role of these theories to explain social and economic phenomenon.

How unemployment is individual and social problem

Unemployment is caused by many factors in a modern market economy. It can be caused by rapid technological change, business cycle or recessions, seasonal factors in some industries particularly such as changes in tastes and climatic conditions which affects demand for certain products and services, individual perceptions and willingness to work and search for jobs, their values and attitudes towards some jobs and about employers, accessibility for retraining and acquisition of work skills, willingness and perception of unemployed of the benefits of training and the possibility for them to get a job after the training even though they have a chance to get a job, discrimination in the workplace based on race, color. religion, ethnicity, age and class.

It can be seen from the above causes unemployment in a particular period can be a combination of caused by social factors and how the economy as a whole works and also due to the subjective individual factors. In a sociological point of view according to functionalist and conflict theorists the unemployment is caused primarily by the social factors than by the individual factors. However according to Max Weber and symbolic interaction theories individuals construct their own social constructs and perception and they can be subjective in their behavior and there fore can become unemployed even though the actual condition they can get a job in the job market.

How To Protect USB Drive From Virus

Have you ever attached a USB to a computer and later found out that the drive is infected by a virus? I have definitely faced this situation many times. If you attach your USB drive to the infected computer the virus is transferred to the drive in no time infecting all the important documents in USB drive too, depending on the nature of the virus you may loose important data from the USB drive and never recover them back. But there is a solution to protect your USB drive from virus infection when it is connected to already infected computer.
If you make your USB drive into non writable mode then any kind of data can’t be written to it which means that if a virus infected computer is going to transmit any virus to drive, it won’t be able to because USB drive is write protected.
Write Protect Switch
Certain USB flash drives comes with write protector switch in them, using which you can write protect the USB flash / pen drive or make them read only drives. If the write protect feature is missing in the USB flash / pen drive then you can use USB Write Protector utility.
ThumbScrew
Thumbscrew is a freeware application that lets you write protect your USB drive so that virus, Malware, Trojan or any kind of infection from host computer would not be able to write anything on your USB.Now right click the system try icon and choose Make USB read only. This would make the USB drive write protected which makes it completely protected from infections to to spread onto your drive.

The cheapest way to buy shares

The internet has revolutionised the way private investors buy and sell shares. Quicker and cheaper than traditional phone-based dealing, the change has also cut the amount of paper investors have to deal with.

WANT TO KNOW MORE?

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• ADVICE & TIPS: Investing
• REPORT: Top shareholder perks

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A CHEAP WAY TO BUY ISAS

This is cheepest way to purchase share

Investment Bankers Facilitate the Issuing of Bonds

If you needed to borrow money, you would probably go to your banker. Governments and businesses do the same thing. They look to the investment banker for their borrowing needs.
An investment banker serves as an intermediary between the organization issuing the securities and the investors.
When a corporation or government agency is considering issuing bonds--or stocks, for that matter--it usually contacts an investment banker for advice on the marketplace, the possible issuing price, and other factors. An investment banker is a firm that serves as an intermediary between the organization issuing the securities and the investors who purchase them. The bond issuer does not itself sell the bonds.
Investment bankers often begin assisting the corporation or government agency well before the bonds are actually issued. The organization's relationship with the investment banker may continue after the bonds have been issued, and the investment banker may sit on the corporation's board of directors.
Corporations and government units realize that investment banks possess knowledge and expertise they need to reach investors. Investment bankers generally have an excellent understanding of capital markets, relevant government regulations, and other factors affecting a bond issue.

Reasons Stock Market Crash

The 1920’s were a time of peace and great prosperity. After World War I, the “Roaring Twenties” was fueled by increased industrialization and new technologies, such as the radio and the automobile. Air flight was also becoming widespread, as well. The economy benefited greatly from the new life changing technologies.
As the Dow Jones Industrial Average soared, many investors quickly snapped up shares. Stocks were seen as extremely safe by most economists, due to the powerful economic boom. Investors soon purchased stock on margin. Margin is the borrowing of stock for the purpose of getting more leverage. For every dollar invested, a margin user would borrow 9 dollars worth of stock. Because of this leverage, if a stock went up 1%, the investor would make 10%! This also works the other way around, exaggerating even minor losses. If a stock drops too much, a margin holder could lose all of their money AND owe their broker money as well.
From 1921 to 1929, the Dow Jones rocketed from 60 to 400! Millionaires were created instantly. Soon stock market trading became America’s favorite pastime as investors jockeyed to make a quick killing. Investors mortgaged their homes, and foolishly invested their life savings in hot stocks, such as Ford and RCA. To the average investor, stocks were a sure thing. Few people actually studied the fundamentals of the companies they invested in. Thousands of fraudulent companies were formed to hoodwink unsavvy investors. Most investors never even thought a crash was possible. To them, the stock market “always went up”.

The Importance Of Insurance !

I came to realize that my purpose in this profession is more important than some people can imagine. My mother died in 1998 after a six-month battle with cancer. Just a few years earlier I convinced her to purchase a $10,000 life insurance policy to help cover her final expenses. Even though at the time her health was failing (high blood pressure, heart problems) I found a guaranteed issue life policy and she made the decision to protect her family. In my heart I am glad she made this decision, as it was hard enough to live through these last six months without the financial burdens of her final days. Just to note this was not my first experience with death, my father died when I was six years old and I spent twelve years of my life watching my mother struggling to raise two young children on federal assistance because he had limited life insurance.

I would have to say most people do not undersand the importance of life insurance until they have lived through a the tragedy of a loved ones death and the impact of inadequate insurance coverage. Many people mean well and and always plan to have the insurance they need, but too many wait until it is too late. One of the number one reasons people die without the proper coverage is procrastination...and believe me I have heard all the reasons… can’t afford it,not enough time,shopping for the right coverage, so called work coverage and many more.

I have a dream of trying to save the world but many people have to try to help themselves. I am here to help them make the right choice. As for the top two reasons, first procrastination just make time, it only takes 30 minutes to an hour to protect your family for a lifetime! Secondly money, most people can protect their loved ones for approximately $10-15 weekly and even less in some cases.

Agricultural Sector in Pakistan

Background

Pakistan has a rich and vast natural resource base, covering various ecological and climatic zones; hence the country has great potential for producing all types of food commodities. Agriculture has an important direct and indirect role in generating economic growth. The importance of agriculture to the economy is seen in three ways: first, it provides food to consumers and fibres for domestic industry; second, it is a source of scarce foreign exchange earnings; and third, it provides a market for industrial goods.

Land use, farming systems and institutions

The total geographical area of Pakistan is 79.6 million hectares. About 27 percent of the area is currently under cultivation. Of this area, 80 percent is irrigated. In this regard, Pakistan has one of the highest proportions of irrigated cropped area in the world. The cultivable waste lands offering good possibilities of crop production amount to 8.9 million hectares. Growth in cropped area is very impressive: from 11.6 million hectares in 1947 to 22.6 million hectares in 1997.

Most of Pakistan is classified as arid to semi-arid because rainfall is not sufficient to grow agricultural crops, forest and fruit plants and pastures. About 68 percent of the geographical area has annual rainfall of 250 mm, whereas about 24 percent has annual rainfall of 251 to 500 mm. Only 8 percent of the geographical area has annual rainfall exceeding 500 mm. Thus supplemental water is required for profitable agricultural production, either from irrigation or through water harvesting.

Agriculture is largely dependent on artificial means of irrigation. Of the total cultivated area, about 82 percent or around 17.58 million hectares is irrigated, while crop production in the remaining 3.96 million hectares depends mainly upon rainfall. The Irrigation Canal Command Area (CCA) has been grouped into classes on the basis of the nature and severity of its limitations water logging, salinity, sodicity and texture. At present about one-fifth of the cultivated land in CCA is affected by water logging and salinity to varying degrees. An additional area of 2.8 million hectares suffers from sodicity. Notwithstanding huge investments, the water table was 0 to 1.5 m under 2.2 million hectares of irrigated land, 1.5 to 3 m under 6 million hectares and 0to 3 m under 8 million hectares. Thus Pakistan needs to overhaul its entire drainage and reclamation strategy reduce its cost and make it efficient.

Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, and transportation had a profound effect on the socioeconomic and cultural conditions in Britain. The changes subsequently spread throughout Europe, North America, and eventually the world. The onset of the Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in human society; almost every aspect of daily life was eventually influenced in some way. Starting in the latter part of the 18th century there began a transition in parts of Great Britain's previously manual labour and draft animal–based economy towards machine-based manufacturing. It started with the mechanization of the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques and the increased use of refined coal. Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads and railways. The introduction of steam power fuelled primarily by coal, wider utilization of water wheels and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity.^[2] The development of all-metal machine tools in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries. The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world. The impact of this change on society was enormous.^[3]

Mineral Resources of Swat Valley Pakistan

Swat Valley is rich of GOD gifted mineral resources. Most of the minerals in swat belong to family 10 in periodic table.Therefore these minerals are valueable and internationaly recognised. They include Sulphides, oxides and Hydroxides, Nitrats, Carbonates and Borates, Silicates and other unclassified minerals. The list having 18 entries in that 14 are valid minerals. Following are the minerals, which have been already found and successfully explored for commercial use.

China Clay or Kaolin:

China clay or kaolin is used for white ware and special type of cement and as paper and rubber filler. The largest mine of China clay is found in a village called Shahderai, having the finest quality of China clay in Pakistan. The total reserves were estimated 2.8 million tons.
The same type of China clay has also been found in Shahdin and Doshagram near Matta. But the important issue is the ceramic factory is situated 200km away from these mines ( near Attok ). which is a matter fo disgus for local peoples, decreasing the chances of jobs in Swat valley.

Marble

Natural stone (a crystalline form of calcium carbonate, CaCO3), which is, recrystalized limestone, which is both durable and beautiful. Marble can stand heavy use but can be stained or scratched. It is also brittle and must be handles carefully during installation. Dark marble is harder than light or white marble. More commonly used for fireplace mantels, counter tops or as flooring, it can also be used on the exterior of a building.
In various part of the valley a good quality of white and green marble are found and mined for local base industries also goes to the near by district. The reserves are located in Saidu sharif, Spal bandai , khadag, Ghaligai, Parrai, Malam Jabba and Ghakhai Kandao.

Emerald Mines

Emerald is a variety of the mineral beryl, colored green by trace amounts of chromium and sometimes iron. It is highly prized as a gemstone and ounce for ounce is the most valuable gemstone in the world, often made more so by inclusions. Beryl has a hardness of 8 on the 10-point Mohs scale of hardness. Emerald is the birthstone for May.

The mine is located in the outskirts of Mingora in Fizaghat. This is deep green color exceptional clarity and excellent quality. The production of Gem grade emeralds made during 1978-1988 was 280671.96 carats. The reserves are estimated to 13.2 millions cts. The finest quality is the best to export to the international markets. There is an export potential of millions of dollars if is excavated and cut for international standards.

Literacy Development

Literacy develops over time as students progress from emerging to skilled readers who can comprehend and analyze complex text. Reading for understanding requires an active thinking process that is influenced by the reader's prior knowledge and experiences (National Reading Panel, 2000). Current national efforts aim at helping every child read independently by third grade.
Strategies for increasing literacy development focus not only on improving reading skills, but also on developing the higher-order thinking skills that enable students to comprehend, analyze, and communicate about ideas. Well-designed literacy programs provide students with frequent opportunities to use language--reading, writing, listening, and speaking--for varied and authentic purposes.
Proficient readers monitor their understanding as they read. When the text doesn't make sense they use strategies that include:
• Activating background knowledge
• Making connections between new and old knowledge
• Self-questioning to clarify and deepen understanding
• Drawing inferences by using background knowledge along with textual clues
• Separating main ideas from details
• Monitoring understanding of text
• Employing fix up strategies to repair confusion
• Using sensory images to understand and visualize ideas
• Synthesizing and extending thinking, going beyond the information given (Tovani, 2004)
Technology offers new tools for effective literacy instruction, and also expands the definition of 21st century literacy. As the International Reading Association's position statement on literacy and technology explains, "To become fully literate in today's world, students must become proficient in the new literacies of information and communication technologies. Therefore, literacy educators have a responsibility to effectively integrate these technologies into the literacy curriculum" (IRA, 2001).

How currency exchange Market Works

I bet you are well aware of the existent of Forex trading nowadays. Forex market exists wherever one currency is traded for another. Forex, or Foreign Exchange Market, is generally works as an international currency exchange market. Investors and speculators are allowed to trade currencies from all around the world thru Forex trading.

Forex is a very unique type of trading where traders are buying and selling 'money' in the same time. The trades are done in pairs, such as Euro/JPY, USD/CHF, and CAD/USD. It is the world largest trading market where an average of $1.9 trillion trades is done on a daily basis. The turnover rates in FOREX are nearly 30 times larger than the total volume of equity trades in United States.

Despite its large volume of trades done daily, Forex is relative new to the publics nonetheless. It is only made available to publics in year 1998 where big sized inter-bank units are sliced into smaller pieces and offered to individual traders like you and me. Before that, Forex is a game only for banks, multi national cooperation, and big currency dealers. Only those with large business size and strong financial background were permitted to trade foreign currencies.

Facts about Forex market

As a matter of fact, large international banks are still the major traders in currency exchange market. Deutsche Bank is one of the top currency traders; along with other major banks like UBS, Citi Group, HSBC, Barclays, J. P. Morgan Chase, Coldman Sachs, ABN Amro, Morgan Stanley, and Merril Lynch; these banks are said to be responsible for more than 70% trades in currency market.

When you are trading Forex with currency dealer, the Forex quotes might look a bit different from our previous example. Often, a two-sided quote, consisting of 'bid' and 'ask' price, is listed when dealing with currency brokers. For example, EUR/USD 1.2385/1.2390: 1.2385 is known as the 'bid' price while 1.2390 is commonly known as the 'ask' or 'buy' price. The 'bid' is the price at which you can sell the base currency; while the 'ask' is the price at which you can buy the base currency. As you study the numbers, you might realize that the two-sided currency price is quoted against you.

Traders are forced to buy the currency in a higher price than the selling one. This is done because FOREX trades are done without any commission chargers. Thru quoting currency 'bid & ask' price differently in this way, the currency brokers are manage to make profit without charging their client commission fees directly. Learn more on Forex quotes.

Best Air Port in Asia

Asia Comes out on Top
By Moon Ihlwan

When it comes to airports, many travelers have a simple goal: Spend as little time there as possible. With the global recession causing airlines to cut back on services—and with travelers having less cash to spend at duty-free stores and other shops—the airport experience threatens to get even worse. One part of the world where a trip to the airport isn't so enervating, though, is Asia. In the annual survey of airport service quality by Geneva-based Airports Council International (ACI), Asian airports—Seoul, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Nagoya, Japan—won four of the five top spots. Nova Scotia's Halifax was the only non-Asian airport to be included in the top five.

More than 200,000 passengers at 126 airports from around the world took part in the quarterly airport surveys, measuring more than 30 elements of passenger experience and how well each element satisfies expectations. While Asian airports aren't immune to the economic downturn and the fall in airline traffic that has come with it, governments around the region are intent on maintaining their lead. Big expansion projects are underway, for instance, in Shanghai and Seoul. To read about the top performers, click on.

The Best Luxury Hotels in the World

We've done it again! Our team of luxury hotel experts is proud to present our collection of the World's Best Luxury Hotels for 2007. And why not, after the huge success of last year's luxury hotel awards. Who better to select the best luxury hotels in the world than the travel agency with the most comprehensive collection of 100% luxury hotels?

This year we've hand-picked the best luxury hotels worldwide, based on great feedback from our loyal customers. Learn about Five Star Alliance and how we can help you find and book the ideal luxury hotel - just like we've helped tens of thousands of travelers. As always, we'd love to hear from you. Bon voyage!
2007 World's Best Luxury Hotels
World's Best Business Hotels 2007
For the globetrotting executive looking for the very best.

World's Best Honeymoon Resorts 2007
Newlyweds deserve an unforgettable, once-in-a-lifetime experience.

World's Most Romantic Luxury Hotels 2007
Certain luxury hotels set the standard for romance and seclusion.

World's Best Luxury Hotels for Families 2007
No need to sacrifice when you bring the kids along.
World's Best Spa Resorts 2007
We're warning you now - if you visit these spa resorts you might never leave.

World's Best Golf Resorts 2007
The courses that all serious golfers need to visit in their lifetime.

World's Best Ski Resorts 2007
There are many mountains in the world, but a rare few with world-class luxury resorts.

World's Best Beach Resorts 2007
You won't believe the umbrella drinks you can get at these places.

Investment Decision Making

Strategic investment decision-making: complexities, politics and processes
Article Abstract:
This article is a preliminary report on an investigation into the processes of investment decision-making. Three case studies from three firms are presented which show disparities in a number of aspects of process, for example, the length of time taken to arrive at a decision, the number and intensity of disagreements and uncertainties encountered. Date were collected for these cases through semi-structured interviewing from multiple informants in the three organizations, thereby permitting the use of analysis of variance techniques of the different perspectives given by informants. Perceptions of the effectiveness of the decisions were also gathered. One finding from the study is that the decisions with the lowest perceived effectiveness (in firm HE) also lost support from those involved in making the decision during the process, although the decision was eventually implemented. This decision also had the least agreement amongst informants as to the main sources of disagreements. Informants of all three decisions saw effect upon product quality and productivity, fit with business strategy and competitive position of the company as the most important factors to take into account in evaluating the decisions. In firm CG, however, there were disagreements as to how the investment should be evaluated. In the conclusions to the article a discussion is given as to the nature of evaluation procedures in relation to the developing theory of information systems. (Reprinted by permission of the publisher.)